3.1 EM27/SUN with automated clamshell cover

The EM27 system and its characterization are thoroughly described in the works of Gisi et al. (2012), Frey et al. (2015), Hase et al. (2015) and Hedelius et al. (2016). For total column measurements of CO₂, CH₄, H₂O and O₂ spectra in the near infrared range, the instrument is fitted with an indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs) detector dedicated to 5000–12 000 cm⁻¹. This also enables measurements of spectra covering the O₂ bands necessary to derive column-averaged dry-air mole fractions of CO₂ and CH₄ similar to the method used by TCCON. TCCON uses a maximum optical path difference (MOPD) of 45 cm, corresponding to a spectral resolution of 0.02 cm⁻¹. However, in contrast to TCCON, the EM27 we used has the typical MOPD of 1.8 cm, corresponding to a spectral resolution of 0.5 cm⁻¹.

We equipped the Bruker EM27 with a weather station-controlled automated clamshell cover for the solar tracker and protective fairing (Fig. 2). Our objective was to achieve autonomous and remote measurements of greenhouse gases in harsh environments, in particular, to perform much needed measurements of XCO₂ and XCH₄, in desert Australia. The design and more details of this construction can be obtained by contacting the authors.

Figure 2Drawing of the Wollongong EM27 automated clamshell cover and fairing (by Steve Selby, UOW).

Recently, Hedelius et al. (2016) published a long-term assessment of errors and biases in retrievals of several TCCON gases from the EM27. In spite of a reported drift, they found that the stability of the EM27 is sufficient for short-term campaigns. Therefore, before deployment to Alice Springs, we have operated the EM27 from December 2015 to September 2016 and tested the automated clamshell cover at the University of Wollongong, where the TCCON instrument (Griffith et al., 2014) is also located. Results of the collocated measurements are in Sect. 4.

3.2 Retrieval of XCO₂ and X_air

To retrieve XCO₂, we use the same retrieval software used by TCCON called GGG2014 (Wunch et al., 2017), which was also used by Hedelius et al. (2016) for their EM27. Column-averaged dry-air mole fractions (DMFs) of gases (X_gas) are retrieved from the EM27 measurement as in Wunch et al. (2010):

where VC_gas is the vertical column of the gas. VC_dryair is the dry pressure column of air and 0.2095 is the known DMF of oxygen. The DMF of air (“X_air”) can be calculated using the measured oxygen column from the EM27 spectrum:

where mH₂O and $m_{\mathrm{air}}^{\mathrm{dry}}$ are the mean molecular masses of water (18.02 g mol⁻¹) and dry air (28.964 g  mol⁻¹), XH₂O is the retrieved DMF of water vapor and VC_air is calculated from the surface pressure, P_s:

where g is the column-averaged acceleration due to gravity and N_a is Avogadro’s constant. X_air is a good indicator of instrument stability and changes in spectrometer alignment because (1) VC_air is calculated using the surface pressure, which is independently measured by a pressure sensor to better than 0.3 hPa, keeping accuracy over long periods (Wunch et al., 2011), and (2) the atmospheric oxygen column is not particularly variable in dry air; hence the retrieved VC${}_{{\mathrm{O}}_{\mathrm{2}}}$ by the spectrometer should be close to constant. From Eq. (2) it follows that a perfectly accurate measurement would lead to an X_air value of unity; however due to inaccuracies in the O₂ spectroscopy, the actual value is approximately 0.98 for all TCCON sites. We also find that X_air values well outside of the second and 98th percentiles may indicate an obstruction in the solar beam (e.g., birds, fast moving clouds, leaves from trees). Therefore the X_air can also serve as data filtering criteria.

In Wollongong, both the TCCON and EM27 solar tracker covers were opened and closed by the same pneumatic system. The same weather station provided the meteorological data that were used to pre-filter the data (e.g., fractional variation in solar intensity, wind speed and direction, pressure). For this study, we did not filter the data according to solar zenith angles (SZAs) anymore; instead, in addition to the pre-filter we filtered out noisy retrievals by selecting only those with X_air values within 0.5 and 1.5 because anything beyond that would be unrealistic in the atmosphere but most likely be the cause of an interference or obstruction.

3.3 GOSAT specific point observations

The TANSO-FTS on GOSAT has a two-axis pointing system. Normally, TANSO-FTS follows an M-shaped grid on a five-point cross-track scan mode (https://www.eorc.jaxa.jp/GOSAT/instrument_1.html, last access: 12 June 2019). By using this pointing system to vary the observation geometry, it is able to observe specific points, i.e., it can view targets with angles up to ±20^∘ along the satellite track and by ±30 ^∘ across the track. Specific point observations over Alice Springs were requested from July 2016, in preparation for the campaign in September. Five locations within 100 km of the center of Alice Springs were targeted (see Fig. 3). We only used the specific point observation data to compare with the EM27. However, to construct the time series shown in Fig. 8, we used all available GOSAT data version V2.72 from NIES spanning the years 2010 to 2017. Daily averages within 1000 km of Alice Springs are calculated for M- and H-gain retrievals separately.

Figure 3A Google Earth map (Data SIO, NOAA, U. S. Navy, NGA, GEBCO © 2018 Google) showing the GOSAT specific point observations around Alice Springs (cyan circles labeled “Obs#”) . The ground-based site is securely fenced and located at the airport, ca. 14 km south of the town center. The magenta circle shows a 60 km radius from the site, for visual reference. The inset shows the EM27 during the measurements.

4.1 Comparison with Wollongong TCCON station

In this section, we present a side-by-side comparison of retrievals of XCO₂ between the EM27 and the Wollongong TCCON station. Apart from the works by Hedelius et al. (2016) and Frey et al. (2019), studies on long-term comparisons of the EM27 with TCCON are rare. Here, we focus on comparisons of X_air and XCO₂ from measurements spanning almost 1 year (November 2015 to September 2016) under varied environmental conditions. Both instruments normally measure at the same time, apart from interruptions due to occasional mid-infrared measurements with the 125HR or rare software glitches (e.g., JAVA issues).

4.1.1  X_air

As mentioned in Sect. 3.2, inaccuracies in the O₂ spectroscopy lead to an X_air value of approximately 0.98 for all TCCON sites. This value varies by approximately 1 % with solar zenith angle, indicating an air mass dependence in the O₂ retrievals (Pollard et al., 2017). Deviations from the characteristic values for X_air are generally indicative of erroneous behavior in the measurement and retrieval system such as interferometer misalignment, tracking errors or fitting to an incorrect air mass due to timing errors, as recently reported in Pollard et al. (2017).

Figure 4 shows the normalized probability distribution functions (PDFs) of X_air values retrieved by both instruments in 2016. One manifestation of instrumental differences between the Wollongong TCCON and the EM27 is the difference in the X_air retrieved from both instruments. The corresponding mean values of X_air from both instruments are 0.9824 and 0.9849 for TCCON and EM27, respectively. The TCCON X_air PDF exhibits a more Gaussian pattern, while the EM27 X_air PDF is slightly skewed.

Figure 5 shows the mean X_air values calculated for each month in 2016 for TCCON (red) and EM27 (blue). The error bars represent the spread (1 standard deviation) in the monthly mean values of X_air. This gives us a measure of how much the X_air changes and therefore another measure of instrument stability. In Fig. 5, we see that the mean X_air values from the EM27 are slightly larger compared to the TCCON instrument but a slight seasonal dependence can be seen in both instruments. The difference in the mean X_air values does not appear to be purely related to sampling differently across that seasonal dependence. The SZAs seem to have an effect as well, although small. To show this in Fig. 5, we filtered X_air values for SZA ≤45^∘ (black dots and circles) and above 45^∘ (gray pluses and crosses). The SZA effect is within approximately 1 % for both instruments. We note that there were no realignments performed on the EM27 and TCCON instruments during this period; however the EM27 clamshell cover and fairing were fitted on the EM27 in February 2016. It is possible that this may have affected the alignment resulting in a shift in the X_air.

Figure 4Normalized probability distribution functions (PDFs) of X_air from TCCON (b) and X_air from the EM27 (a) in Wollongong for 2016. The PDFs for each month are separated by colors and the positions of the mean X_air monthly values are indicated by the month number. The mean X_air for the whole year for the EM27 is 0.9849 and 0.9824 for TCCON. The clamshell cover and fairing were installed on the EM27 in February; this may have affected the alignment resulting in a shift in the X_air.

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Figure 5A measure of the spread of the of X_air values from TCCON (red) and EM27 (blue) by taking the mean (central markers) and corresponding standard deviations (bars) for each of the monthly probability distribution functions shown in Fig. 4. Filtered X_air values for angles ≤45^∘ (black dots and circles) and above 45^∘ (gray pluses and crosses) are also shown for reference.

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4.1.2 XCO₂ comparison with Wollongong TCCON and apparent drift

From the EM27 and TCCON measurements in 2016, we derived a scaling factor for the EM27. We scaled the EM27 measurements to Wollongong TCCON data because the Wollongong XCO₂ has been calibrated against aircraft profile measurements that are traceable to the WMO in situ scale (Wunch et al., 2010). The retrieval method is predicted to be both linear and have a zero intercept (Wunch et al., 2010). Therefore, we fit hourly mean data from TCCON and EM27 employing linear least-squares and force a zero intercept. The standard errors of the weighted means are used as weights in the fit. From this exercise, we arrive at a scaling factor of EM27 $=\mathrm{0.9954}\cdot$ TCCON (Fig. 6). Frey et al. (2015) reported a comparable scaling factor of 0.9951⋅ TCCON for XCO₂ using collocated measurements of five EM27 instruments with the TCCON instrument at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology in Germany. However, Hedelius et al. (2016) reported a smaller bias of +0.03 % between EM27 and TCCON. We think that the slightly larger bias in this work (−0.46 %) is probably due to an imperfect alignment of our EM27, with a modulation efficiency (ME) of 96 % at maximum optical path difference (OPD). The ME calculation was performed using water lines measured at ambient laboratory/room air (Frey et al., 2015). The instrument line shape (ILS) was monitored before, during and after the campaign and the ME remained stable within 94 %–96 %. Therefore, we are confident that the scaling factor relative to TCCON was consistent during the campaign.

Hedelius et al. (2016) reported a noticeable drift in the EM27 measurements over several months. We also observed a very small drift in the EM27 vs. TCCON XCO₂ values shown in Fig. 6, where the calibration line has been derived. For clarity, we color-coded the EM27 vs. TCCON XCO₂ values in Fig. 6 according to days after 1 January 2016. The colors progress with time, i.e., from dark blue (oldest) to dark brown (most recent). We found that the drift within 3 months before the campaign is very small, i.e., 0.13 % over 3 months as calculated from the EM27/TCCON scaling factors from July to mid-September. We did not consider the averaging kernels in this work. The averaging kernels of the EM27 have been previously presented and compared to TCCON in a study by Hedelius et al. (2016). In their study, they found that although there are differences in the TCCON and EM27 averaging kernels, the effect of the differences in averaging kernels from the top of the atmosphere cancel out the effect of differences at the bottom. Further work and more measurements may be necessary to better understand the cause of this phenomenon but this is beyond the scope of this study.

Figure 6Weighted hourly mean XCO₂ from TCCON vs. XCO₂ from EM27 in Wollongong for 2015–2016. To avoid noisy data, only measurements corresponding to TCCON with retrieved X_air values within 0.9783 and 0.9853 were selected (X_air values within the second to 98th percentiles). The inset shows the drift in the hourly weighted mean scaling factors over 3 months (red dots). The error bars are the sum, in quadrature, of the relative standard deviations of the weighted hourly means from each instrument.

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4.2 Measurements in Alice Springs

Results of the ground-based XCO₂ measurements during the Alice Springs campaign are shown in Fig. 7. The measurements started on 29 September 2016 with interruptions due to cloudy and/or rainy weather. In total, we gathered 6 d of good ground-based measurements of XCO₂ under good weather conditions, which coincided with nine GOSAT specific point soundings within 100 km of the site. A slight air mass dependence in the XCO₂ retrievals results in lower XCO₂ values at low sun elevation, as can be observed in Fig. 7. This air mass dependence is well-known and also discussed in Wunch et al. (2011). But for the purpose of GOSAT comparisons, this air mass dependence is negligible because GOSAT passes the site at around 13:05 local time (03:35 UTC), corresponding to a high sun elevation (see Table 1 for the dates).

Figure 7Retrievals of XCO₂ from the EM27 in Alice Springs, compressed along the x axis (days). The measurement days on the x axis are not continuous due to interruptions from bad weather. See Sect. 6 for data availability.

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Table 1GOSAT specific point observation opportunities over Alice Springs.

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4.3 Comparisons with GOSAT measurements in Alice Springs

To demonstrate the variability of XCO₂ in the region, we plot in Fig. 8 the daily mean time series of GOSAT soundings using these two coincidence criteria: (1) all soundings within a 1000 km radius centered at the BOM facility in Alice Springs and (2) all soundings measured within the same day (local time). Each data point considered in the calculation of the daily mean is weighted by the corresponding reported retrieval error for that particular GOSAT sounding. Vertical gray lines represent the corresponding standard deviation for each daily mean calculation. The H-gain retrievals (red triangles) and M-gain retrievals (blue squares) are separated in this plot. Weighted linear least-squares fitted straight lines were calculated for the M-gain XCO₂ (cyan) and H-gain XCO₂ data (magenta). We confirm that the M-gain retrievals are biased high (around 2 ppm) compared to the H-gain retrievals. Nevertheless, both least-squares fitted lines to the H- and M-gain retrievals show an increase of about 2.28 ppm yr⁻¹ with y intercept values at 133.0 ppm (H gain) and 134.92 ppm (M gain).

Compared to the TCCON sites in Wollongong and Darwin (Deutscher et al., 2010, 2014), the XCO₂ signal in Alice Springs is relatively smooth and undisturbed, which is expected because Alice Springs is in the middle of the Australian continent, a desert environment with no large sources to interfere with the XCO₂ signal. The terrestrial biosphere is the largest driver of variability in the Southern Hemisphere column XCO₂ (Deutscher et al., 2014). Moreover, Deutscher et al. (2014) have shown that the magnitude of the seasonal variability in the column-average dry-air mole fraction of XCO₂ is comparable in magnitude to the annual increase. In Alice Springs, only a slight seasonal cycle in the measured XCO₂ can be seen. This slight cycle is probably less driven by the surrounding vegetation because the center of the Australian arid zone is not affected by seasonality and has low aggregate vegetation (Lawley et al., 2011) but is more affected by meridional effect.

Figure 8Time series XCO₂ from GOSAT M-gain and H-gain retrievals in Alice Springs from the NIES version 2.72 product. The timing of the Alice Springs campaign from 27 September to 6 October is indicated by the yellow arrow. Gray lines represent 1 standard error associated with each daily mean. The inset shows a map projection with the approximate locations of the soundings used for this plot. Only data within a 1000 km radius from Alice Springs (black X on the map) were considered.

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Rainfall records indicate that April–August 2011 had the least amount of rainfall on record in Alice Springs after 2002, which was only broken by 2015, and then by 2017 (http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/data/, last access: 12 June 2019, station number 015590). This significant absence of rain in the region could result in stunted vegetation growth or mortality, which could have led to brighter surfaces. Bright surfaces mean more M-gain measurements and this may explain the 74 % increase in M-gain soundings in April–August 2011 compared to the April–August 2010–2017 average of ca. 220 soundings per month. In contrast, the number of H-gain retrievals seems to have diminished around 2011, coinciding with the dry months starting from April 2011. The number of H-gain soundings from April–August 2011 was 23 % fewer compared to the April–August average from the years 2010–2017 (ca. 450 soundings per month).

GOSAT specific point observations that were scheduled during the campaign are shown on Table 1. The times correspond to the times when the satellite is directly above the site. The satellite normally performs five observation points across track, with an interferometric scan time lasting 4 s (Shiomi et al., 2006). But specific point observations deviate from this pattern by pointing and maximizing observations near the target. M- and H-gain retrievals (6 d apart) were obtained during the short campaign. We averaged and compared the GOSAT retrievals directly with the coincident measurements from the EM27 (±0.5 h) and as in Sect. 4.1.2, we fit the data using weighted linear least squares and force a zero intercept. From here, we derived a scaling factor of 0.9927⋅ EM27 for GOSAT H gain and 0.9983⋅ EM27 for the GOSAT M gain, as shown in Fig. 9. This is only slightly different from the previous version 2.60 of the data (H gain: 0.9935⋅ EM27 and M gain: 0.9997⋅ EM27). Indeed, there is a slight bias in the M- and H-gain retrievals from GOSAT; i.e., M-gain retrievals are biased slightly low and H-gain retrievals are very close compared to the EM27. However, the M- and H-gain biases relative to each other have been improved in the version 2.72 data release.

Figure 9Mean XCO₂ from the EM27 vs. GOSAT XCO₂ version 2.60 (a) and version 2.72 (b) in Alice Springs. The calculated means are weighted by the 1-σ uncertainty of the individual measurements. The scaling factor derived from the TCCON comparisons, EM27 $=\mathrm{0.9954}\cdot$ TCCON, has been taken into account.

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4.4 Recommendations for a future Alice Springs campaign: simulating error reduction in bias estimates

In this subsection, we attempt to estimate how long a measurement campaign in Alice Springs should last in order to improve the statistical errors in the estimated bias between GOSAT and the EM27. In order to estimate the required measurements from the EM27, we make the following assumptions and conditions.

1. There is at least one specific point overpass per week (M gain or H gain), similar to this campaign.

2. The standard errors of the weighted hourly mean GOSAT specific point observations are 0.25 and 0.26 ppm for M gains (versions 2.6 and 2.72, respectively) and 0.29 and 0.28 ppm for H gains (versions 2.6 and 2.72, respectively). These values are taken from the averaged standard errors of the weighted hourly means from all specific point observation data falling within 100 km of the site for 2 September 2015–February 2017.

3. 1-σ standard deviation of all EM27 measurements is 0.05 ppm at an averaging time of 1 h. Chen et al. (2016) reported a 1-σ standard deviation of 0.04 ppm at 10 min averaging.

4. The error in the estimated bias is calculated as ${\mathit{\sigma }}_T=\sqrt{{\mathit{\sigma }}_{\mathrm{GOSAT}}^{\mathrm{2}}+{\mathit{\sigma }}_{\mathrm{EM}\mathrm{27}}^{\mathrm{2}}}$, which then improves by the number of weeks (N), i.e., $\sqrt{{\mathit{\sigma }}_T^{\mathrm{2}}/N}$.

5. Any long-term drifts in the satellite and ground-based measurements are negligible over the whole duration of the campaign.

It is important to keep the statistical errors in the estimated bias as low as possible. Miller (2007) showed that a comparison of surface CO₂ concentration data and XCO₂ data flux inversions clearly reveals a land–ocean bias in the XCO₂ retrievals, even when the bias is only 0.1 ppm. Figure 10 shows a plot of how the statistical errors in the estimated bias improve with the number of weeks in the campaign. The inset shows the normalized histogram of the reported GOSAT single sounding errors within 100 km of the site. Note that although H-gain retrievals have smaller errors on average, the number of M-gain retrievals improves the standard error of the weighted mean. A 2-week campaign would already reduce the statistical error between GOSAT M-gain and EM27 measurements to less than the GOSAT M-gain weighted mean standard error (0.26 ppm, v2.72). To achieve a statistical error of 0.1 ppm between GOSAT M-gain and EM27 measurements, it would take about 6 to 7 weeks of measurements or more. Conversely, around 8.5 weeks for H gain is needed because the standard error of the hourly weighted mean H-gain retrievals are slightly higher due to fewer soundings near the site. The ideal time window to perform this would be from March to November (autumn–winter–spring). It is best to avoid the summer months (December–February) because of the desert heat, which could be physically demanding for the operator(s) and may affect the operation of an EM27 without a temperature-regulated enclosure. A temperature-regulated enclosure would improve stability and make the EM27 suitable for summer operations even in the high heat (>40 ^∘C) of Alice Springs. Note however that our error estimates are conservative and this implies that there are no drifts in the M- and H-gain measurements relative to one another that would require long-term validation.

Figure 10The statistical errors in the estimated bias of XCO₂ improve with the number of weeks in the campaign. Inset: normalized histogram of the reported GOSAT single sounding errors within 100 km of the site.

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